Ruby Koans available from http://rubykoans.com/ and their solutions.

The splat Operator

When an lvalue is preceded by an asterisk, all remaining rvalues are placed in an array and assigned to that lvalue

a, *b = 1, 2, 3
a => 1
b => [2, 3]

When there are too few rvalues to assign to lvalues, the variable is assigned nil

Hash Default Values

Hashes have a default value that is returned when accessing keys which do not exist. By default this is nil.

Q: Why would you want to use #fetch instead of #[] when accessing hash keys?
A: #fetch raises an exception KeyError if the key does not exist. #[] returns nil. Use fetch if you are not sure the key exists and want to return an error if it does not.

hash = Hash.new('test') Sets the default return value to the string 'test'

hash[:one] = "dog"
hash[:one] => "dog"
hash[:two] => "test"

Q: Ruby programmers tend to favor the shovel operator (<<) over the # plus equals operator (+=) when building up strings. Why?
A: << modifies the string in place, whereas += creates a new one. Further explanation here http://library.edgecase.com/a-little-more-about-strings

1.9.3-p194 :001 > a = "foo"
=> "foo"
1.9.3-p194 :002 > a.object_id
=> 70283949004920
1.9.3-p194 :003 > a << " bar"
=> "foo bar"
1.9.3-p194 :004 > a.object_id
=> 70283949004920
1.9.3-p194 :005 > a += " baz"
=> "foo bar baz"
1.9.3-p194 :006 > a.object_id
=> 70283948969420

Strings can be split using regular expressions

a = "the:rain:in:spain"
`a.split(/:/)

=>  ["the", "rain", "in", "spain"]

to_s is called on interpolated symbols.

Symbols stay in memory until the program exits.

A failed match returns nil.

Regular expression operators are greedy. As many occurences as possible are matched while still allowing the overall match to succeed. A greedy metacharacter can be made lazy by following it with a ?

The left most match wins
"abbcc az[/az*/]"
=> "a"

#select invokes the block for each element and returns an array of the original elements for which the block returns true

["cat", "bat", "rat", "zat"].select { |a| a[/[cbr]at/] }
=> ["cat", "bat", "rat"]

\w - Any word character. a-z, A-Z, 0-9 or underscore. No spaces allowed.
. - period is any non newline character.

Capital negates. \W - not a word character. \D - not a digit.

A regular expression can be assigned to a variable.

"James Gray"[grays]```  
`=> "James Gray"`

**scan = find all**  
**sub = find and replace**  
**gsub = find and replace all**  

### about_methods

`eval` takes a string and executes it as code  
`eval("Time.now")`

The context which code is executed in is called a binding.

The last thing to be evaluated in a method is returned.

When return is used in a method, only the object it specifies is returned, even if it is not the last.

```ruby
def method_with_explicit_return 
  :a_non_return_value
  return :return_value
  :another_non_return_value
end

method_with_explicit_return => :return_value

A variable args method returns an array and is of class Array.

Inside a class def creates a new instance method.
When self is used inside a class, a new class method is created.

Private and Protected Methods

Calling private methods with an explicit receiver raises NoMethodError.
This includes using self from within other methods of the class and when trying to use the method on an instance of the class

Top level constants are referenced by double colons

CONSTANT = "woof" 
  class Dog

    CONSTANT = "bark" 

    def self.sound
      puts C
      puts ::C
    end
  end

Dog.sound =>
"bark"
"woof"

Nested classes inherit constants from enclosing classes. Subclasses inherit constants from parent classes.
Lexical scope = static scoping

TODO: Read about nested and lexical hierarchy scope

All statements in ruby return the value of the last expression evaluated.

Ternary Operator

If true, return :true_value else return :false_value

true ? :true_value : :false_value

unless true   # the same as saying if !true

p foo does puts foo.inspect, printing the value of inspect instead of to_s, making it more suitable for debugging.

nil is treated as false

Everything else is treated as true: 0, 1, [], {}, "Strings" and "".

In ruby, it is invalid to do a == b == c. The closest equivalent is a == b && a == c

The most elegant solution:

• Put the sides of the triangle in an array
• Use uniq to remove all sides from the array which are not unique in size
• Use size to find out how many sides are left in the array
• If all sides match, 1 will be returned. If 2 sides match, 2 is returned.

def triangle(a, b, c)
  case [a, b, c].uniq.size
  when 1 then :equilateral
  when 2 then :isosceles
  else        :scalene
end

In Ryan Davis' Ruby Quickref, he says

'don’t rescue Exception. EVER. or I will stab you.' http://www.zenspider.com/Languages/Ruby/QuickRef.html#general-tips

This post at Stackoverflow explains why http://stackoverflow.com/questions/10048173/why-is-it-bad-style-to-rescue-exception-e-in-ruby

This is because Exception is the root of ruby's exception hierarchy. When you rescue from Exception, you rescue from everything, including subclasses such as SyntaxError, LoadError and Interrupt.

Some examples of why this would be bad are:

• Rescuing Interrupt prevents the user from using Ctrl-C to exit the program.
• Rescuing SyntaxError means that evals that fail wil do so silently
• Rescuing SignalException will prevent the program from responding to signals. It will be unkillable except by kill -9

You should handle only exceptions that you know how to recover from.

raise and fail are synonyms.

The format of writing code which may raise an exception:

begin
  # something which might raise an exception
rescue SomeExceptionClass => some_variable
  # code that deals with some exception
rescue SomeOtherException => some_other_variable
  # code that deals with some other exception
else
  # code that runs only if *no* exception was raised
ensure
  # ensure that this code always runs, no matter what
end

To pass this test, an error must be raised when:

• The triangle has zero or negative length sides
• The sum of the two shortest sides is not greater than the longest side

def triangle(a, b, c)
  # sort the sides by shortest length to largest
  a, b, c = [a, b, c].sort   

  # Raise an error if the length of the shortest side is zero or less
  raise TriangleError, "A triangle's side cannot be 0 or have a negative length" if [a, b, c].min <= 0 

  # Raise an error unless the sum of the two shortest sides is greater than the longest

  raise TriangleError, "The sum of two smallest sides must be greater than the largest side" unless a + b > c
  case [a, b, c].uniq.size
    when 1 then :equilateral
    when 2 then :isosceles
    else        :scalene 
  end
end

class TriangleError < StandardError
  # nothing needed here, just need to create a new error class which inherits from StandardError
end

collect is a synonym for map
find_all is a synonym for collect
find locates the first element matching a criteria

inject exectues the block given to it for each item in the object it is acting on. It takes two variables, sum and item. It transforms the sum in a cumulative way each time. The sum by default starts at 0, but can be changed.

[1, 2, 3].inject(0) { |sum, item| sum + item }  # returns (((0 + 1) + 2) + 3)  = 6
[1, 2, 3].inject(10) { |sum, item| sum + item } # returns (((10 + 1) + 2) + 3) = 16

Methods can take blocks as an argument. Any number of things can happen within the method. The block is called by yield.

attr_reader will automatically define an instance variable reader

class Dog
  attr_reader :name

  def name=(name)
    @name = name
  end
end

attr_accessor will automatically define read and write accessors

Roll 5 six-sided dice and return an array of the results

5.times.map { 1 + rand(6) }
=> [2, 5, 1, 2, 4]

Subclasses can invoke parent behaviour via super. Super does not work across methods with different names.

Extend within a class brings in the module's methods as class methods Include within a class brings in the module's methods as instance methods Require runs code in the file specified

The methods within the class can overwrite those in the module

Class names are just constants

Class statements return the value of their last expression

Two ways to write class methods are

class Test
  def self.some_method
  end

  class < self
    def some_other_method
    end
  end
end

A strange way that you can call class methods

fido = Dog.new
fido.class.some_class_method

Pass a variable number of arguments to a method

def test(*args)
  args
end

If a method is passed to an object which doesn't exist, it raises a NoMethodError exception - unless you have provided the object with a method called method_missing.

class Dog
  def method_missing(m, *args, &block)
    "No method '#{m}' exists. You called it with these args: #{args}"
  end
end

In this Koan, there is a Television class which has a method to turn a TV on and off and set a channel number.
In this example, the Proxy class is being used to record which methods are sent to the TV and how many times they are used.

to_str vs to_s

to_str - the object is close to a string, treat it as one
to_s - give me the string representation of the object no matter what